Roma or Perseus? The ambiguity of images

Coin of Roman Macedonia, c. 168 BC

This week I returned to thinking about Roman Macedonia, and the unusual series of bronze coins struck by Roman quaestors there (an earlier post on the topic can be found here).The first series of bronze coinage struck after the Roman conquest of Macedonia in 168 BC was issued by the quaestor Gaius Publilius, who struck the unusual type pictured right (MacKay 1). Catalogues identify the obverse of this type as Roma, with the reverse giving the name of the province (Macedonia) in Greek, as well as the name and title of the questor (ΜΑΚΕΔΟΝΩΝ ΤΑΜΙΟΥ ΓΑΙΟΥ ΠΟΠΛΙΛΙΟΥ).

To a Roman audience, the type is Roma, similar to representations of the goddess shown on Roman denarii. But the image is also extremely similar to the iconography of the hero Perseus, who was shown on the bronze coins of the Macedonian kings during the Hellenistic period (shown below right. Philip V even presented himself as Perseus on silver coinage). This raises the question: would a Macedonian, glancing at the coin as they used it, have recognised 'Roma', or would they have seen Perseus, a continuation of the monetary tradition in the region?

Coin of Philip V, Macedonia, 221-179 BC

Images can have multiple associations, and this is particularly the case for numismatic imagery. Unlike other public monuments, which are erected within a particular landscape or context determing the way they are 'viewed', coinage is a medium in motion, being seen by different users in a wide variety of different contexts. This, in turn, results in a broad spectrum of possible associations and interpretations. The ambiguous nature of the image here may have been intentional - there is no obverse legend identifying the image for the viewer. Thus this image may have been intentionally chosen by the Romans for its ambiguity - it had meaning and significance for both Romans and Macedonians, but this meaning was not necessarily the same for both groups. One image, with mutually incompatable possible interpretations, may have served as a focal point in bringing together two different cultures. Indeed, the fact that the existing Macedonian currency carried portraits of Perseus may have actually inspired the Romans in adopting the 'Roma' type for their coinage in the region, explaining why Roma appears here and not in other areas under Roman control in this period.

So is the image Roma or Perseus? The answer all depends on one's perspective....

(Images above reproduced courtesy of Classical Numismatic Group Inc., (www.cngcoins.com)

Clare Rowan : 26 Jul 2013 15:53 |  Tags: Ambiguity Coins In Focus Macedonia |  Comments (0) |  Close comments |  Report a problem

A week at the museum: The British Museum’s Numismatics Summer School, 8th–12th July 2013

The department of Coins and Medals at the BM is easy to miss: beside an indiscrete steel door at the rear of the money gallery, there is a bell which, when pressed, announces your arrival to the sound of trumpets. Inquisitive tourists watch as you enter. Then, as the door is locked, you realise that you have stepped into a giant safe: every room is isolated, while security cameras inspect your movements from above. This is unsurprising, considering the amount of gold and silver which now lies within snatching distance. Any would-be burglar, however, should consider the following before he melts down his loot – a haul of ancient coinage is today worth much more than the sum of its parts.

Despite this, the first lesson we learnt at the BM’s Numismatics Summer School was that, to those who first created our western coinage system, the quantity of precious metal was all that mattered – coins had intrinsic value and no more. So why bother with coinage in the first place? Why not continue to value goods in oxen or tripods; or in unworked ingots of silver or gold? Perhaps coins were convenient and facilitated trade; or maybe the local king wanted to promote his own standards: the jury is still out, despite the mass of research into these fundamental questions.

Yet, there is still plenty to be gleaned from the hard evidence. I was absorbed by the statistical analysis of coin hoards, and intrigued by the eye-watering, frustrating and (ultimately) rewarding discipline of die studies. The twin processes of discovery and coin conservation were also described – invaluable insight for any aspiring archaeologist. Numismatics has never been an overpopulated field, but this didn’t turn a week with the experts into one of dry academia. The numismatists at the BM are diverse in both personality and approach; they are all devoted to their subject. Their explanations, both clear and comprehensive, brought the coins in the museum to life.

Over the course of the week we handled gold coinage, silver coinage, bronze coinage and alloyed coinage; struck coinage, cast coinage and square coinage; early Greek and later Hellenistic coinage, Roman Republican, Roman Imperial and Roman provincial coinage, iron-age British coinage, ancient Persian coinage, and even a little Islamic coinage to boot. I have come away with skills I intend to apply as I further my classical studies, not to mention a set of atrocious coinage-related jokes… In this spirit, I can safely say that, with the BM’s department of Coins and Medals, if you’re in for a penny, you’re in for a pound.

by Joe Grimwade

Clare Rowan : 18 Jul 2013 13:44 |  Tags: British Museum Summer School Undergraduate Research |  Comments (0) |  Close comments |  Report a problem

Sardus Pater and Roman–Sardinian Interaction

Coin of Sardinia struck c. 43-33 BC

Last week Warwick hosted an international workshop focused on the coinage of islands. One of the coins under discussion was an issue struck on the island of Sardinia by Marcus Attius Balbus, a Roman praetor and possibly also a governor of Sardinia. After its conquest by the Romans in 238 BC, Sardinia did not strike its own coinage - instead currency arrived on the island from Rome. It was only at the end of the Republic that coinage began to be produced locally again, with this issue and several others. It is likely that renewed minting on the island was a result of the Republican civil wars - Sardinia was an important grain supplier, and both sides of the conflict did their best to win control of the island.

The Temple of Antas, Sardinia

The obverse of this coin probably shows a portrait of the praetor himself, Attius Balbus. Although the first living Roman portrait to be shown on a Roman coin was Julius Caesar in 44 BC, the practice was quickly adopted after his murder (even by the assassins!) The reverse of the coin shows the god Sardus Pater. The god was an important figure through which the Romans and the local Sardinian population interacted. There was a temple to Sardus Pater at Antas, close to an important mining district. This was originally a local temple to an indigenous (Nuragic) deity, which the Carthaginians, when they conquered the island, identified as Sid Addir. The Romans in their turn identified the deity as Sardus Pater, and the emperor Augustus rebuilt the temple sometime after 27 BC. It is clear that Sardus Pater provided a figure through which the Romans could incorporate Sardinia into their world view: both Sallust and Pausanias record that Sardus was the son of Hercules, who went with a mass of people to settle Sardinia. As a focal point for Roman engagement with the Sardinians, it is no surprise that it is this god which was chosen to grace another medium intended for intercultural interaction: coinage.

(Images above provided courtesy of Classical Numismatic Group (Mail Bid Sale 78, 1170) (www.cng.coins.com), and Wikimedia Commons).

Clare Rowan : 10 Jul 2013 20:30 |  Tags: Coins In Focus Sardinia Sardus Pater |  Comments (0) |  Close comments |  Report a problem

A provincial coin of Ephesus showing Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus flanking the cult statue

The relationship between Rome and Greece was complex, as Rome admired Greece for its higher culture, but was afraid of how it could influence changes in the political and social structures of the empire. Eventually the two cultures mixed during the Roman conquest and we can see that a balance was struck between the reverence shown to the Roman Emperors and provincial imagery. This balance can be seen particularly in the coinage of Ephesus where the majority of coins show the Roman Emperor on the obverse, and local images emphasised civic pride on the reverse.

As in the case of this bronze coin from the rule of Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus, there was a substantial amount of coinage from this province depicting the cult statue of the Ephesian Artemis. The Ephesians, going against traditional Greek conviction, believed that the divine twins Artemis and Apollo were actually born in their city. The Ephesians mainly worshipped Artemis as a fertility goddess, which resulted in their cult statue differing enormously from traditional depictions of her in mainland Greece, where an emphasis was traditionally put on Artemis’ role as a huntress. The inclusion of the Ephesian Artemis on such coins demonstrates the pride that the Ephesians took in their local political and cultural traditions. The inclusion of the cult statue also gives us an idea of the way the Ephesians viewed the Roman conquest. While Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus are shown on the reverse as well, the fact that the statue takes the central focus shows that the traditional gods of the Ephesians were more important to them than other gods brought to them through the conquest.

While the image of Marcus Aurelius on the obverse serves to show the relationship between Ephesus and Rome, and in many ways the dominance of Rome over this particular province, the inclusion of the Ephesian Artemis shows that the Ephesians also felt that the need to demonstrate their own power. The inscription ΝЄΟΚ on the reverse also serves to show the power and rank of Ephesus at the time. Neokoros is a title that appears a lot on ancient coinage, originally given to officials who were in charge of the upkeep of sacred buildings and their artefacts. By the time of Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus it referred to cities that had local temples to the imperial cult. It seems as if rivalries between cities often motivated them to strive for this recognition, and the inscription on this coin is evidence for the civic pride gained by winning the title.

This month's coin was chosen by Emily Morgan, a final year undergraduate. While her dissertation focused on the attitudes towards death in Greek literature, she is an avid coin collector and is passionate about expanding her knowledge of classical numismatics.

(Image above reproduced courtesy of Classical Numismatic Group Inc., (www.cngcoins.com))

Clare Rowan : 02 Jul 2013 08:08 |  Tags: Coin Of The Month Ephesus |  Comments (0) |  Close comments |  Report a problem

Sextus Pompey the Iconographic Innovator

Pompey the Great as Janus

Although the reign of Augustus as first emperor of Rome is often seen as a period of innovation in iconography and ideology, several Romans in the late Republican period also pushed the boundaries of traditional representation. This role is often obscured in literary sources, which were written to favour the emperor Augustus. Coins, however, survive in abundance from this period and can provide an insight into what other Romans, the opponents of Augustus, were thinking and doing.

Coinage reveals that Sextus Pompey, the son of Pompey the Great, was a great innovator in terms of ideology and iconography. Although Augustus portrayed himself as the pious successor of Julius Caesar after the latter's assassination in 44 BC, Sextus Pompey had, in fact, already been developing this ideology after the death of his father in 48 BC. The way Sextus used the memory of his father went beyond the normal boundaries of the Roman Republic, and indeed, was far more radical than the ideology and imagery eventually used by Augustus. In this sense, Sextus Pompey was one of the great innovators of his time.

This coin, a bronze As struck by Sextus Pompey somewhere in Sicily or Spain, is a perfect illustration of this. Roman bronze coins normally had the head of Janus on the obverse, and the prow of a ship on the reverse (in fact, the Roman version of our game 'heads or tails' was called 'heads or prow'). On this coin the features of Janus are changed so that they resemble Pompey the Great, an allusion that is reinforced by the legend MGN or Magnus ('Great') above. Neither Julius Caesar nor Augustus were ever portrayed in such a blatantly divine fashion. In fact, Sextus also portrayed his father as Neptune. The reverse of the coin displays the traditional prow alongside the legend IMP or imperator, as well as the legend PIVS or pious. Sextus potrayed himself as the pious son of his assassinated father (see these other coin issues), and so when Augustus and Antony did the same after the death of Caesar they were actually playing catch up. Coinage thus reveals that Sextus Pompey had an important role in setting the ideological agenda that would eventually shape the ideology of Marc Antony, Octavian and the Roman principate.

(Coin image above reproduced courtesy of Classical Numismatic Group (Auction Triton XVI Sessions 3 & 4, Lot 876) (www.cngcoins.com)).

Clare Rowan : 21 Jun 2013 16:44 |  Tags: Coins In Focus |  Comments (0) |  Close comments |  Report a problem

Osca and Iconographic Entanglement

An Iberian denarius from Osca.

In examining how the Romans represented themselves and their growing Empire, it is clear that ideology and iconography arose from the interaction Rome had with her provinces. As Dietler disccusses in his book Archaeologies of Colonialism, any colonial or cultural encounter does not just affect the people being conquered, but also the conqueror. Both sides are transformed by these encounters, in a process called entanglement.

Entanglement(s) between the Roman Republic and other areas can be traced on numerous coin issues. Of interest here are the coin issues of Osca in Spain (modern day Huesca, but called Bolskan in the local Iberian language). Osca is perhaps best known for connection with the Roman rebel Quintus Sertorius, who made Osca his base and established a school to educate the children of local chieftans in the Roman manner. Osca also struck 'Iberian denarii', a series of silver coins carrying Iberian legends that were struck by numerous mints in Spain after the Roman conquest. The motivation behind these coins is heavily debated in modern scholarship, but they can be connected with the Roman conquest, and were in all likelihood used by the Romans in Spain. Although struck by numerous mints and different tribal gorups, these coins all carried a common iconography: a male head on the obverse, and a horseman on the reverse.

Coin of Gnaeus Domitius Calvinus, struck at Osca

In 40 BC Gnaeus Domitius Calvinus was sent as governer to Spain by Octavian. Calvinus remained in Spain for three years and appears to have been military successful. Calvinus had supported Julius Caesar during the civil wars, and after Caesar's death he supported Octavian. While in Spain, Domitius Calvinus struck Roman denarii (RRC 532/1) with a male head on the obverse and pontifical emblems on the reverse. The obverse type is clearly inspired by local Oscan issues (also referenced with the legend OSCA). The Roman conquest had sparked the issue of Iberian denarii at Osca, which in turn influenced the official Roman coinage struck by Roman officials - a case of entanglement. The reverse type was believed by Crawford to refer to Calvinus' position as a member of the Roman priesthood. The image, however, may have an alternative reference. Given Calvinus' long term support of the Caesarian cause, it may be a reference to the famous elephant and pontifical emblems coin of Caesar. This was one of the most prolific Republican denarius issues ever struck, meaning its imagery would be known and recognised. Others had referenced Caesar's coin as a statement of their political alliances (see the case of Hirtius), and Domitius Calvinus may be doing so in a subtle manner here. The imagery on the coin may thus have multiple layers of interpretation and meaning - it might be read as a statement of individual political loyalty, individual prestige, and as the product of entanglement between the Roman Republic and her provinces.

(Coin images reproduced courtesy of Classical Numismatic Group Inc., (www.cngcoins.com) and Numismatica Ars Classica NAC AG).

Clare Rowan : 10 Jun 2013 12:18 |  Tags: Coins In Focus Entanglement Osca |  Comments (0) |  Close comments |  Report a problem

A medallion showing the arrival of Asclepius in Rome

Writing about web page http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/arts/classics/research/coinage

As often in ancient history, the decision to bring Asclepius, the god of Medicine, to Rome was made in order to avert a pestilence against which remedies of the time were powerless. In 293 BC, following an oracle from Delphi, the Roman senate decided to bring the cult of Asclepius to the Urbs. For this purpose, they sent delegates to Epidaurus, the most famous Asclepius shrine of the time, in order to fetch one of the sacred snakes of Asclepius and carry it back to Rome on a ship. Similar epidemic outbreaks, combined with human helplessness in the face of disease explain the spread of the cult of Asclepius from the 5th c. BC onwards.

Upon arrival to Rome, it is said the sacred snake jumped out of the boat into the Tiber, and landed on the island (today Isola Tiberina). The temple of Asclepius was built on this very site, for, it was thought, the god himself had chosen the location of his future home! The ‘medical’ function of the island has survived to our day: where the temple of Asclepius stood now lies a hospital.

This fine bronze medallion illustrates that famous episode of Roman history. A rare, precious piece in itself, this medallion dating from Antoninus Pius’ reign (138-161 AD) can in fact be connected with a wide range of visual representations of the Asclepian cult and of Roman legendary history. Like other medallions of Antoninus Pius, it refers to famous Roman events in an attempt to connect the present with the distant, heroic past. Not all details are perfectly visible here, but the image has several striking features, such as the archs of a bridge over the Tiber, the Tiber itself in the shape of a bearded river-god, and several buildings which may or may not have stood on the island – the snake seems to gaze at them, which could indicate that they were placed on the Isola Tiberina. At the centre of the medallion, the artist has captured the very moment when the snake, ‘standing’ at the prow of the galley bringing him to Rome, is about to jump into the Tiber and swim across to the shore of the island where the temple is to be built. Other representations of the same event exist in a variety of formats (notably a famous relief on the island itself, shown below right), and they reflect a more general pictorial theme of the gods’ arrival in a given place. Above left is a famous 2nd c. AD mosaic in Cos that shows Asclepius setting foot on the shore of the island, with Hippocrates sitting there, to welcome him.

This month's coin is chosen by Dr. Caroline Petit, a Wellcome Trust Senior Research Fellow in Classics at Warwick who works on ancient medicine.

(Coin image above reproduced courtesy of Baldwin's Auctions Ltd, New York Sale XXV, lot 185)

Clare Rowan : 02 Jun 2013 09:01 |  Tags: Coin Of The Month |  Comments (0) |  Close comments |  Report a problem

Imitation and the Legacy of Mark Antony

Coin of New Carthage imitating an earlier coin of Mark Antony

The coinage of Carthago Nova in Spain (modern day Rio Tinto) during the Roman Republic is unusual to modern eyes since they rarely have a portrait on the obverse of the coin. That is, there is no 'heads'. The coins also sometimes imitate the silver coinage struck by the Roman Republic (see for example RPC 1 151). One example of particular interest is the coin pictured right (RPC 1 155). While the legend on the coin gives the names of the local individuals responsible for the issue (L. Appuleius Rufus and C. Maecius), the imagery on the coin is taken directly from a famous coin series of Mark Antony.

Before the battle of Actium, Mark Antony struck an enormous series of coins, showing a ship on one side and an aquila (military standard) on the other (see image). This series, known as Antony's 'legionary denarii', are found in almost every corner of the Roman world, well after other Republican coinage disappeared. Indeed, Antony's coins are still found in hoards in the third century AD (some 200 years after they were initially struck). The longevity of Antony's coins is likely due to the fact that there were produced with a slightly less than pure metal content (meaning that they were not melted down or hoarded alongside other coins of purer silver). The result was, ironically, that Antony's coins circulated much longer than the coins of Octavian. Why Octavian didn't destroy these coins after Antony's defeat is a difficult question, but because of their sheer number and impure metal content, it may have been easier for Octavian to use the coins rather than melt them down.

Why the moneyers of Carthago Nova felt the need to adopt the numismatic iconography of a defeated Roman general is again a difficult question. But the moneyers were certainly not alone in their imitation; later on the emperor Marcus Aurelius would also reference and celebrate the coinage of Mark Antony (see image). Imitations of other triumviral numismatic imagery have a political context (for example, the adoption of Caesar's imagery by Hirtius in Gaul was likely meant to signify his support of the Caesarian cause). But here it may be that because Antony's coin type also did not have a 'heads' side per se, it appealed to Carthago Nova, since it fit in with their own numismatic tradition. By using the imagery of Mark Antony, and placing it alongside their own names on a local coin of Carthago Nova, the moneyers transformed the context and perhaps also the meaning of the image. Whatever associations the image may have had for users of this coinage, the imitation of 'Roman' iconography demonstrates that people were paying attention to what the Romans put on their coinage, as it increasingly became a vehicle for communication.

(Image above reproduced courtesy of Classical Numismatic Group (Mail Bid Sale 78, lot 1092). www.cngcoins.com).

Clare Rowan : 17 May 2013 11:41 |  Tags: Coins In Focus Imitation Mark Antony |  Comments (0) |  Close comments |  Report a problem

A PROVINCIA DACIA sestertius from the third century AD

Writing about web page http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/arts/classics/research/coinage

This month’s coin is a sestertius of the PROVINCIA DACIA coin series. PROVINCIA DACIA was a local coinage in the middle and lower Danube area during the 3rd century AD. It mainly circulated in the provinces of Dacia and Pannonia, as suggested by site finds. A close analogy can be established with another roughly contemporary bronze coinage P M S COL VIM (Provinciae Moesiae Superioris Colonia Viminiacum), which was issued at Viminacium in Moesia Superior between AD 239 and 257. The research of C. Gãzdac suggests that the main role of these coins was to supply the army. The PROVINCIA DACIA coin series can therefore be closely linked with the military and their need for bronze coinage in Dacia. This hypothesis is supported by site finds from the territory of this province. For example, at the militarised site of Porolissum, 64% of the PROVINCIA DACIA coins minted during the reign of Philip I were retrieved from the territory of the fort (Á. Alföldy-Gãzdac, C. Gãzdac, The coinage ‘PROVINCIA DACIA’ – a coinage for one province only? (AD 246-257), in Acta Musei Napocensis, 39-40/I, Cluj-Napoca, Romania, 2002-2003 (2004), p. 247-258).

This month’s coin was struck during the first year of the local era, i.e. AD 246. This can be seen on the reverse side, in the exergue, which contains the formula AN I (annus I, lat.). This year coincided with the imperial presence of Philip I in Dacia during the Carpic invasion. The obverse of this sestertius depicts the imperatorial bust of Philip I in military dress – he is wearing a cuirass, and his head (facing right) has a laureate crown.

The legend is inscribed with the emperor's name: IMP(erator) M(arcus) IVL(ius) PHILIPPVS AVG(ustus). The military theme of the reverse is in line with the intended audience for this coinage. It depicts the province of Dacia standing left, between an eagle and a lion. The eagle with a wreath in its beak and the lion are symbols of the legions permanently garrisoned in Dacia, the legio V Macedonica from Potaissa, and the legio XIII Gemina from Apulum. Moreover, the olive branch, the curved Dacian sword (falx), and the standard inscribed D(acia) F(elix) are also of a military character. Finally, the legend on the reverse is inscribed PROVINCIA DACIA.

The importance of this coin, struck in the first year of the local era, is suggested by the high volume of this coinage in Dacia during the reign of Philip I (estimated by C. Gãzdac at almost 40%), and by its intended audience. The mint where this specimen was struck remains debatable. However, recent scholars have provided convincing arguments for Apulum.

This month's coin was chosen by Elena Marchis, an MPhil/PhD student in Numismatics at Warwick.

(Coin image above reproduced courtesy of Numismatik Lanz München)

Clare Rowan : 02 May 2013 13:19 |  Tags: Audience Coin Of The Month Dacia |  Comments (0) |  Close comments |  Report a problem

Mineia and the City of Paestum

A coin in the name of a woman (HN Italy 1258)

Before the Roman Empire, women were rarely featured on ancient coinage. Even with the arrival of an emperor and his associated empress, it took some time before women featured regularly on coins (Livia, for example, was not shown on the coinage of the first emperor Augustus). A bronze coin struck at the city of Paestum in Italy, however, proves a rare exception to this general rule.

Mineia and the city of Paestum

Coin of Paestum showing the woman Mineia M.f.

Amongst the bronze coins struck by the city of Paestum is an issue naming a female inhabitant of the city, Mineia M.f. The coin may also show her portrait (although others suggest that this is the goddess Bona Mens). From inscriptions we know that Mineia was the wife of a senator, Cocceius Flaccus, who was an officer (quaestor) under Julius Caesar, and who had an active role in the Civil Wars at the end of the Roman Republic.

After the death of her husband, Mineia sponsored a construction programme in the forum of Paestum, including the construction of a new basilica. Within the niches of this new basilica inscriptions were found honoring her dead husband and her son, who may also have predeceased her. This coin shows Mineia on one side and the basilica she sponsored on the other. The question is: did Mineia also sponsor this coinage (meaning her image was placed on it), or was the coin issue voted for her in gratitude by the city? It is impossible to know. The S C legend on the reverse of the coin, on either side of the basilica, may refer to the Senate of Paestum, and that the coinage was issued by their decree. The issue of Mineia is an example of how coins and other ancient monuments can interact, and often communicate the same message.

Interactions with Rome

As Burnett demonstrated in 2011, one of the effects of growing Roman power was a changed understanding of coinage in areas under Roman control (JRS 2011). Unlike many other ancient states, the Romans saw coinage as more than just money; coins were a medium to commemorate events and history, often highlighting the achievements of the moneyer's family (in this sense they were 'monuments in miniature'). With increased Roman power and control, this attitude to coinage spread to other regions, seen here in this example, which commemorates the activity of a female patron of Paestum. This method of using coins to highlight achievements and civic structures should be seen as a result of interaction and entanglement with Rome.

(Coin image reproduced courtesy of Classical Numismatic Group (Electronic Auction 169, Lot 5) (www.cngcoins.com))

Clare Rowan : 15 Apr 2013 18:34 |  Tags: Coins In Focus |  Comments (1) |  Close comments |  Report a problem